The water-energy nexus in Tajikistan: the role of water user associations in improving energy and water security



This article explores the critical interdependence of water and energy resources in Tajikistan and highlights the role of Water User Associations (WUAs) in enhancing both water and energy security. Tajikistan's vast hydropower potential, which provides over 95 % of the nation's electricity, positions water as a crucial energy resource. However, issues such as inefficient irrigation, poor infrastructure, and climate change impact both water availability and energy generation. The establishment of WUAs has improved water management, fostering greater energy efficiency and contributing to national security. Water User Associations (WUAs) can mitigate the delicate balance between water, energy in Tajikistan. Although they are often still underdeveloped, WUAs can address challenges that hinder water-energy sector efficiency. This article suggesting laws, policies, and recommendations for addressing energy and water security challenges in Tajikistan, particularly in the context of Water User Associations (WUAs).

1. Introduction

The Water-Energy Nexus, which refers to the intricate relationship between water and energy systems, has gained significant attention globally, particularly in regions where water resources are vital for energy production. In Tajikistan, this nexus plays a crucial role in shaping both economic and social development. As a landlocked, mountainous country, Tajikistan possesses substantial water resources, primarily in the form of rivers and glaciers. These water sources feed into the country's hydropower plants, which account for around 95 % of its electricity generation [World Bank, 2022]. Hydropower, therefore, serves as the cornerstone of Tajikistan’s energy security, making the management of water resources essential for both electricity production and national stability.

Tajikistan’s geographical location in the Central Asian region places it at the heart of a complex network of water distribution among neighboring countries, further complicating its water management policies. The country provides approximately 60 % of the region's water supply [Perelet, 2019], which is vital for irrigation, drinking water, and energy production not only within Tajikistan but across Central Asia. Despite this abundance, inefficient infrastructure and outdated water management practices limit the country’s capacity to fully harness these resources for both energy and agricultural needs (FAO, 2021).

Climate change presents additional challenges to this delicate balance, as rising temperatures accelerate glacial melting, reduce water levels, and create irregularities in river flows. These climate-induced changes directly affect hydropower generation, especially during the winter months when water reserves are lower, and energy demands peak (UNDP, 2021). As a result, Tajikistan experiences frequent energy shortages, particularly in rural areas, which underscores the urgent need for better water management systems that can ensure stable water flows throughout the year.

In response to these challenges, Water User Associations (WUAs) have emerged as a key institutional mechanism for improving water management, primarily within the agricultural sector. Initially established in the early 2000s to manage irrigation systems, WUAs have expanded their role to influence broader water resource management initiatives, including those affecting energy production (IWMI, 2021). By promoting more efficient water usage and modernizing irrigation infrastructure, these associations help ensure that more water is available for hydropower production, thereby contributing to Tajikistan’s energy security.

Furthermore, the integration of WUAs into the country’s water governance structure has allowed for localized management of resources, which is particularly important in rural areas where access to both water and energy remains inconsistent. WUAs empower local communities by giving them a say in the management of the resources they depend on, fostering a sense of ownership and responsibility for water conservation (World Bank, 2022). This localized approach also aids in the mitigation of water-related conflicts, which are common in regions where water is scarce and competition for resources is high.

The Water-Energy Nexus in Tajikistan is shaped by a combination of abundant natural resources, inefficient infrastructure, climate variability, and the evolving role of local governance institutions like WUAs. This article delves into the challenges and opportunities presented by the water-energy interdependency, examining how improved water management, driven by WUAs, can strengthen Tajikistan’s energy security and foster sustainable development. Additionally, it highlights the export potential of Tajikistan’s hydropower resources and the steps needed to unlock this opportunity for regional economic integration.

2. Energy and Water Security in Tajikistan

Tajikistan, located in Central Asia, is endowed with abundant water resources and significant potential for hydropower. However, despite these natural advantages, the country faces significant challenges in managing its energy and water security due to a combination of factors.

Tajikistan’s energy system is heavily reliant on hydropower, which constitutes over 95 % of the country’s electricity generation capacity [World Bank, 2022]. The country’s mountainous geography and extensive river systems, particularly the Vakhsh and Panj rivers, provide a substantial capacity for hydroelectric power generation. The Rogun Dam, once completed, is expected to be one of the tallest dams in the world and will further boost Tajikistan’s electricity generation (ADB, 2020).

However, this dependence on hydropower also makes Tajikistan vulnerable to seasonal variations and climatic changes. During the dry winter months, when water levels are lower, electricity generation often falls short of demand, leading to widespread power shortages. This seasonal imbalance disrupts energy security, particularly affecting rural areas where access to alternative energy sources is limited (USAID, 2021).

2.1 Water Security and Regional Implications

Tajikistan is home to about 60 % of Central Asia’s freshwater resources, most of which originate in glaciers and rivers (UNDP, 2019). However, despite this abundance, ensuring water security remains a challenge due to aging infrastructure, inefficient water management systems, and the impacts of climate change. Melting glaciers and changing precipitation patterns are threatening long-term water availability, with potential consequences for agriculture, drinking water supply, and energy production.

The water management challenges in Tajikistan have significant regional implications as well. The country is situated at the headwaters of the Amu Darya river, which flows downstream into Uzbekistan and Turkmenistan. Disputes over water allocation among these countries have persisted since the dissolution of the Soviet Union, with downstream nations concerned about Tajikistan's plans to expand its hydropower capacity [Menga, 2017]. While Tajikistan views the development of hydropower as key to its economic and energy security, neighboring countries fear that this will reduce the water available for irrigation, potentially harming their agricultural sectors [Rakhmatullaev et al., 2020].

2.2 Climate Change and Water-Energy Vulnerabilities

Climate change poses an additional layer of complexity to Tajikistan’s water and energy security. According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), the Central Asian region is expected to experience rising temperatures and increased variability in precipitation, which could exacerbate water shortages and reduce the efficiency of hydropower plants (IPCC, 2021). In Tajikistan, glaciers that feed the country’s rivers are retreating, which could lead to reduced river flow over time and negatively impact both water availability and hydropower generation [World Bank, 2022].

In response, the government has initiated efforts to improve energy resilience, such as diversifying its energy sources by investing in solar and wind energy. However, the reliance on hydropower remains dominant, making it critical for the country to adopt strategies that improve water efficiency and bolster regional cooperation on shared water resources (ADB, 2020).

2.3. Strategies for Improving Energy and Water Security

To enhance its energy and water security, Tajikistan must prioritize infrastructure development and cross-border collaboration. Investing in modernizing irrigation systems and improving water storage capabilities can help mitigate the effects of seasonal water variability. Additionally, strengthening regional dialogue through initiatives like the International Fund for Saving the Aral Sea (IFAS) can promote cooperative solutions to transboundary water management issues (UNDP, 2019).

On the energy front, Tajikistan has taken steps to increase its energy exports to neighboring countries, particularly Afghanistan and Pakistan, through projects such as the Central Asia-South Asia (CASA-1000) power transmission initiative. This project aims to promote regional energy cooperation by allowing Tajikistan to export surplus electricity during the summer months when hydropower generation is at its peak (USAID, 2021).

Tajikistan’s energy and water security are deeply intertwined, shaped by its geographic advantages, seasonal challenges, and regional dynamics. While the country holds tremendous potential in hydropower, its dependence on water resources also makes it vulnerable to climate change and geopolitical pressures. Through regional cooperation, infrastructure development, and investment in alternative energy sources, Tajikistan can enhance its energy and water security in the face of these evolving challenges.

3. Water User Associations (WUAs)

In 2011, the Government of Tajikistan implemented the «Programme for the Efficient Use of Hydropower Resources and Energy 2012–2016», with the aim of enhancing energy efficiency and conservation measures to reduce energy losses (Government of Tajikistan, 2011). The primary objective of the government was to eliminate the country's reliance on energy imports and achieve full energy independence by addressing inefficiencies in the energy sector. The programme targeted savings of up to 3,200 million kWh of electricity and aimed to increase summer energy exports by 40 % by 2017, with the ultimate goal of eliminating the need for energy imports. Although these targets have not yet been fully achieved, substantial potential for energy savings remains. According to the Asian Development Bank, potential electricity savings in 2011, considering improvements such as the introduction of new machinery, more efficient water use, and optimized crop patterns, could have amounted to at least 50 % of total electricity consumption in the agricultural sector (ADB, 2011).

A recent World Bank study found that various combinations of institutional reforms could improve energy efficiency by 5–15 % (World Bank, 2017). Moreover, exporting the energy conserved through these measures could lead to significant financial savings. If electricity were exported rather than lost to inefficient irrigation systems, the revenue generated from energy exports could be reinvested into the agricultural sector, particularly for the rehabilitation of the most inefficient assets. The World Bank estimated that such reinvestment could reduce annual national irrigation and drainage costs by 62 %, from USD 31.09 million to USD 11.70 million (World Bank, 2017). One institution that could facilitate this process is the Water Users Association (WUA).

The necessity for efficient management of water systems in Tajikistan prompted the establishment of Water User Associations (WUAs) in the late 1990s and early 2000s [Abdullaev, I., Ul Hassan, H., & Manthrithilake, M., 2006]. These institutions emerged following the initial phase of land reforms between 1998 and 2000, driven by governmental initiatives and international development projects. The «Water Users Association» Law, enacted on November 8, 2006, provided a legal framework for the creation, operation, and governance of WUAs as «non-commercial organizations delivering services for the operation and maintenance of irrigation systems in the interest of water users» [Government of Tajikistan, 2006]. WUAs were designed to be managed by water users within one or more distributary canals, comprising individuals from leaseholding farms, cooperatives, private landowners, and owners of household garden plots. A key objective of this system was to ensure the effective operation, maintenance, and utilization of on-farm irrigation systems, thereby optimizing water allocation within a designated area [Rahmatilloev, R., 2002]. The WUAs were tasked with ensuring the equitable, efficient, and timely distribution of water among farms, collecting payments for water services, and resolving disputes related to water allocation.

In a relatively short period, numerous Water Users' Associations (WUAs) were established across Tajikistan. By the end of 2015, approximately 409 WUAs had been created, covering a total service area of 380,425 hectares, including 48,725 hectares of household gardens, and involving nearly 51,000 dehkan farms. However, the majority of these WUAs currently exist only in name, with many lacking any significant functional or administrative role [Zavgordnyaya, 2006; Wegerich, 2008]. Despite initial efforts by the government, local communities, and international organizations to establish these WUAs, insufficient support has been provided to ensure their development into fully operational and self-sustaining entities. As a result, many WUAs are hindered by weak governance, face challenges in mobilizing both in-kind and financial contributions, and struggle with water management within their jurisdictions.

In 2015, the government introduced the Water Sector Reforms (2016–2020), which are grounded in a new river basin management framework. These reforms aim to reassess the operations of WUAs, enhancing their roles and responsibilities [Government of Tajikistan, 2015]. WUAs are expected to play a central role in ensuring effective water management and improving energy efficiency within the country. Strengthening their institutional capacity is, therefore, critical.

3.1 Strengthening WUAs for Sustainable Water Management

For WUAs to be more effective in Tajikistan, several reforms are necessary. First, strengthening the legal and institutional framework governing WUAs would enhance their capacity to enforce water distribution rules and manage irrigation systems more effectively. Clearer policies regarding water rights, fee collection, and dispute resolution are crucial for ensuring the sustainability of these associations [Lerman & Sedik, 2018].

Second, improving the financial stability of WUAs is essential for maintaining and upgrading irrigation infrastructure. This could be achieved through government subsidies, access to credit, or public-private partnerships aimed at modernizing irrigation networks (UNDP, 2019). Additionally, providing technical training to WUA members on water management and modern irrigation technologies would help improve water-use efficiency and agricultural productivity.

Finally, fostering greater participation and inclusivity within WUAs is key to their long-term success. Ensuring that all water users, particularly small-scale farmers and marginalized groups, have a voice in decision-making processes will promote fairness and increase trust within these associations. In turn, this can lead to more effective water management and conflict resolution at the local level.

Water User Associations are a vital component of water management in Tajikistan, particularly in the context of the country’s dependence on irrigation for agriculture. While WUAs have the potential to improve water distribution and irrigation efficiency, they face significant challenges related to capacity, funding, and governance. By addressing these challenges and supporting the development of stronger, more inclusive WUAs, Tajikistan can enhance its water security and build a more resilient agricultural sector, especially in the face of climate change.

4. Conclusion and Recommendations

Energy and water security are critical to Tajikistan’s sustainable development, particularly given the country's reliance on hydropower and agriculture. The complex interdependence between water and energy demands careful governance and strategic interventions. Water User Associations (WUAs) are central to this, playing a key role in managing local irrigation systems and ensuring equitable water distribution. However, these institutions face significant challenges related to infrastructure, financial resources, governance, and climate change. To strengthen energy and water security in Tajikistan, several laws, policies, and strategic recommendations must be considered.

– Enforcement of Water Rights and Responsibilities: Tajikistan should enact clearer laws that define water rights, particularly regarding the use of water for agriculture and energy generation. Existing water laws should be revised to provide legal certainty to WUAs, with clear guidelines on fee collection, water allocation, and dispute resolution (UNDP, 2019). Ensuring that all water users understand their rights and responsibilities will reduce conflicts over water access and create a more stable environment for water management.

– Strengthening WUA Governance: Legal frameworks should be developed or enhanced to give WUAs more authority to manage and maintain irrigation infrastructure, enforce water allocation rules, and resolve local disputes. This includes granting WUAs the power to impose fines for non-compliance or water wastage, improving their capacity to manage resources (Zinzani, 2016). A specific legal mandate for the inclusion of small-scale farmers and marginalized groups in decision-making processes should also be implemented to ensure fairness and transparency in water distribution.

– Climate-Resilient Water Management Policies: The government should adopt national policies that promote climate-resilient water and energy management. This includes improving water storage and irrigation efficiency, particularly through investments in modern irrigation systems like drip and sprinkler technologies. Laws that incentivize water-saving technologies, sustainable land use, and better water retention infrastructure (such as reservoirs) will be crucial for mitigating the impacts of climate change on Tajikistan's water resources [World Bank, 2021].

– Diversification of Energy Sources: Given Tajikistan’s reliance on hydropower, diversification of energy sources is critical. Expanding the use of renewable energy sources like solar and wind will reduce pressure on the country’s water resources while contributing to energy security (ADB, 2020). The government should develop policies that encourage investment in these sectors, providing incentives such as tax breaks, grants, or low-interest loans for renewable energy projects.

– Investment in Infrastructure Modernization: Modernizing Tajikistan’s irrigation and energy infrastructure is a high priority. Public-private partnerships (PPPs) should be encouraged to fund upgrades to irrigation networks and improve water-use efficiency. The government should also prioritize infrastructure investments in regions most vulnerable to water shortages, ensuring that irrigation systems are upgraded and capable of withstanding future climate impacts (Lerman & Sedik, 2018).

– Promotion of Regional Cooperation: Tajikistan must continue fostering regional cooperation over shared water resources. The Amu Darya and Syr Darya river basins are transboundary resources that require cooperative management among Central Asian nations. Multilateral agreements, such as the International Fund for Saving the Aral Sea (IFAS), should be strengthened to ensure equitable water distribution and address potential disputes (UNDP, 2019). Regional energy initiatives like the CASA-1000 transmission project, which allows Tajikistan to export surplus electricity, also promote cross-border collaboration and energy stability.

– Capacity Building and Training: Continuous training programs should be offered to WUA members to build their capacity in water management, financial management, and governance. This includes technical skills related to irrigation system maintenance and operation, as well as training in conflict resolution and participatory decision-making (FAO, 2020). International donors and NGOs could collaborate with the government to provide these capacity-building initiatives.

– Financial Sustainability of WUAs: To ensure their long-term sustainability, WUAs must have access to reliable funding sources. This could involve government subsidies, external financing through donor agencies, or the creation of micro-financing opportunities for farmers to invest in water-saving technologies. A well-defined system for collecting and managing water fees should also be established, with transparent mechanisms to ensure the funds are used for the maintenance and improvement of irrigation infrastructure [Zinzani, 2016].

– Inclusive and Participatory Water Governance: Ensuring that all water users, especially smallholders, women, and marginalized communities, have a voice in WUA governance will promote fairness and efficiency in water distribution. The government should mandate the inclusion of these groups in WUA leadership positions and decision-making processes, ensuring that water management decisions reflect the needs of all stakeholders (Lerman & Sedik, 2018).

Tajikistan’s future development depends on how well it manages its water and energy resources in an increasingly unpredictable climate. By strengthening the legal framework governing water rights, investing in infrastructure, promoting sustainable and inclusive practices through WUAs, and diversifying energy sources, Tajikistan can improve both energy and water security. Implementing these recommendations will require coordinated efforts by the government, WUAs, international organizations, and local communities. Ultimately, a comprehensive and integrated approach to managing the water-energy nexus will be key to ensuring sustainable development and resilience in Tajikistan’s agricultural and energy sectors.

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