The present study pertains to the administration of the sewer and drainage infrastructure in the city of Kabul, which is anticipated to experience sustained population expansion. As per the recently proposed Master Plan, the urban populace is anticipated to witness a surge from 4.5 million in the year 2017 to 9 million by the year 2050. The swift increase in population in Kabul has resulted in significant strain on its economy, social services, and housing. However, the urban infrastructure systems, including roads, water supply, and sewage, were inadequately designed and executed. This article aims to examine the existing issues pertaining to sewage in Kabul, where a municipal sewage system has yet to be established. A comparative analysis is conducted to evaluate the management and control of wastewater in Kabul in relation to several cities across the globe. The current study offers a proposed resolution for the Master Plan, which is supported by a comprehensive review of relevant literature pertaining to comparable urban centers across the globe. Additionally, a case analysis of Omid-e-Sabz, a municipality situated in the western region of Kabul, is presented.
Keyword: wastewater management, sewage management, drainage, sewage system, environmental sustainability.
Introduction
The proper collection and management of sewage is a crucial aspect of urban governance, as it significantly contributes to the promotion of public health, sanitation, and environmental sustainability within a city. Our study centers on waste management practices in Kabul, with a comparative analysis of a case study and relevant literature from other nations. The town of Omid-e-Sabz, situated west of Kabul city, has been the subject of our study. In addition, three literature reviews of urban centers across the globe, such as Ancient Rome and London, England, which implemented advancements in their sewer management infrastructure, are also utilized. The alternative literature review centers its attention on the rural locality of Court Case situated within the United States of America. Ultimately, the Sasaki recommendations for waste management were examined in our study.
Kabul is facing significant challenges in meeting the infrastructural demands due to its rapid population growth. A primary concern pertains to the management of wastewater. The lack of infrastructure in many areas of Kabul results in the mixing of waste water and ground potable water, posing significant health risks to the populace. It is imperative that Kabul devises a viable solution to enhance its sewage management system.
The present research endeavors to delineate the problem at hand, conduct a comprehensive review of relevant literature from various nations, and scrutinize a case study pertaining to Omid-e-Sabz. The challenges associated with managing urban wastewater encompass a broad spectrum of issues, including olfactory nuisances and the potential for drinking water contamination. Furthermore, an analysis was conducted on the sewage system of a town located within Kabul known as Omid-e-Sabz. The town has demonstrated effective management of its sewer system, resulting in favorable outcomes. Ultimately, the present discourse concerns the examination and interchange of data through the analysis of both extrinsic and intrinsic specimens. This study examines the benefits and drawbacks of three distinct wastewater collection systems, namely latrine, septic tank, and lift station, and proposes an appropriate system for effective drainage management in the city of Kabul.
The present document comprises a comprehensive literature review.
The sewerage system of Ancient Rome is a notable aspect of its civil engineering.
The Roman Empire gained notoriety for its public bathing facilities, water distribution infrastructure, and municipal sewage management systems during the ancient era. It is believed that the ancient Romans constructed the initial sewage system during the period of 800–735 BC. The process of managing water involved the utilization of recycled bath water for the purpose of flushing the latrines, which was facilitated through a system of covered drains. Terracotta pipes were utilized for plumbing purposes, and residential structures were directly linked to the sewer drainage network. The Cloaca Maxima, an ancient sewer system, dates back 2800 years and is notable for being the initial drainage infrastructure to connect with the Tiber River, a feature that has endured to the present day. There existed a total of eleven aqueducts in ancient Rome which were utilized for the transportation of water. Undoubtedly, it serves as the source of inspiration for the majority of contemporary water management systems in use.
The first illustration. The topic of interest pertains to the sanitation practices of the ancient Roman civilization.
Chapter II. A Legal Dispute over a Sanitary Sewer System in a Rural Community.
The infrastructure of a sanitary sewer system comprises a complex arrangement of interconnected pipelines that facilitate the transportation of human and industrial waste to a designated treatment facility. Subsequently, the waste material is segregated by the treatment plant, and the residual liquid is released into a stream or river with the intention of dispersing it into a proximate larger water body. In the beginning, the sanitary sewer piping systems were integrated with the storm sewer systems, which were responsible for gathering and transporting rainwater to a stream or a larger water body for disposal without undergoing any treatment. The amalgamation of a sanitary sewer system and a storm sewer system offers the benefit of facilitating the transportation of untreated sewage through pipelines by means of rainwater dilution. In addition, it facilitates the purification of wastewater and contributes to the mitigation of sewer line blockages. One of the drawbacks associated with a unified sanitary and storm sewer system is that in the event of a heavy rainfall, treatment facilities may become overwhelmed and exceed their maximum capacity, necessitating the discharge of untreated sewage into nearby water bodies, thereby creating a potential environmental and public health risk. The act of segregating two distinct systems has become a prevalent practice. A litigation involving a municipality with a population of less than 10,000, situated in a northern state of the United States and located on the banks of one of the Great Lakes, has recently taken place. The urban area is traversed by a river that ultimately discharges into one of the Great Lakes. In compliance with governmental regulations, a state-of-the-art wastewater treatment facility has been constructed along the river. The waste water treatment process of the plant comprises three distinct stages, namely primary, secondary, and tertiary (advanced) treatment. The initial stage of treatment involves the employment of fine screens or other separation mechanisms to segregate solid matter from liquid. The process of secondary treatment involves the utilization of biological treatments to decompose organic matter. The implementation of advanced treatment encompasses a diverse range of techniques aimed at achieving a higher degree of refinement in the effluent produced by the treatment plant. An example of a sophisticated approach involves subjecting secondary sewage effluent to chlorination prior to its release, as a preventive measure. This is particularly relevant given that the treatment plant's effluent is situated in close proximity to the city's drinking water intake, as well as frequently visited bathing beaches and fishing areas.
The introduction of alum and polymers by the plant can facilitate additional purification of the discharged substance. The government mandated that the plant be constructed with sufficient capacity to effectively cater to the entire river basin, given the recurrent backup issues experienced by adjacent neighborhoods. One of the recent developments upstream experienced three instances of mainline malfunction within the past few years, leading to the infiltration of untreated sewage into the basements of local inhabitants. The initial two out of the three occurrences resulted in the primary pipeline experiencing overflow due to intense precipitation, whereas the third instance transpired in the absence of any precipitation. Following the occurrence of this third event, a resident made the decision to take proactive measures.
The regional waste management enterprise ascertained that the pipeline connecting the individual's residence to the primary pipeline running alongside the thoroughfare was not obstructed. Subsequently, the personnel affiliated with the sanitation company proceeded to unveil a manhole cover in close proximity to the residential area. Upon inspection, it was observed that the fluid level within the manhole, which served as the primary conduit for the county, had exceeded the standard threshold. This anomaly suggested that an obstruction had occurred within the system, thereby causing the issue at hand. The nation expeditiously commenced remedial measures and ascertained that the primary conduit had become obstructed at the initial street situated in the lower course, resulting in the accumulation of effluent in the upstream direction and consequent inundation of the cellar of the aforementioned senior citizen. The process of cleaning, disinfecting, and ventilating the basement by a restoration company took a duration of three days and incurred a cost exceeding two thousand dollars.
III. The London Sewerage System refers to the network of underground pipes, tunnels, and treatment facilities designed to manage and dispose of the city's wastewater and sewage.
The London sewerage system constitutes a fundamental component of the water infrastructure that caters to the needs of London, England. Its origins date back to the latter part of the 19th century, and over time, it has undergone significant expansion to accommodate the growing demands of the city. At present, Thames Water is the proprietor and operator of the entity, which caters to a significant portion of Greater London's population.
Since the beginning of the 1800s, the Thames River has functioned as an exposed sewage system, leading to numerous public health crises and frequent outbreaks of cholera in Long. During the early 18th century, several suggestions were deliberated to enhance the sewer system of London; however, they were not implemented primarily due to apprehensions regarding expenses. The 1858 «Great Stink of Parliament» served as a catalyst for the government to promptly address the need for a more dependable sewage infrastructure.
The task of designing and implementing the contemporary sewage system in London was entrusted to Joseph Bazalgette, who served as both the chief of the Metropolitan Board of Works and a civil engineer. The extensive subterranean sewer network of London was devised by a team of associates with the purpose of redirecting waste towards the estuary of the River Thames.
There exist six primary interceptor sewers downstream of the urban core, with a combined length of 160 kilometers (equivalent to 100 miles). Three interceptor sewers were erected to the north of the river, with the southernmost location situated at the lowest elevation within the Thames embankment. The construction of the embankment facilitated the development of additional thoroughfares, public green spaces, and the circular route of the London underground railway system.
The inauguration of Victoria Embankment took place on the 13th of July in the year 1870, marking its official opening. The intercepting sewers, which were built during the period of 1859 to 1865, received their supply from a network of 450 miles (720 km) of primary sewers. These primary sewers were responsible for transporting the contents of approximately 13,000 miles (21,000 km) of smaller, localized sewers. The construction of the interceptor system necessitated a total of 318 million bricks, 2.7 million cubic meters of excavated earth, and 670,000 cubic meters of concrete. The utilization of Portland cement in a pioneering manner resulted in the fortification of the tunnels, which remained in a state of sound condition even after the passage of 150 years.
The force of gravity facilitates the eastward flow of sewage in various locations such as Deptford, Chelsea, and Abbey Mills. Pumping facilities were constructed with the purpose of elevating water levels and facilitating fluid movement. The sewer system located on the northern side directs its flow towards the northern outfall sewer, which subsequently channels the wastewater into a significant treatment facility. A sewer system located in the southern region is connected to a comparable infrastructure. Significant advancements made in the 20th century resulted in a notable decrease in the level of pollution present in the Thames River as it flows towards the North Sea and the Thames Estuary.
The initial plan for the London sewage system was to accommodate a maximum capacity of 6.5mm (1/4") per hour of the precipitation that falls within the catchment region. The population growth in London has exerted significant strain on the sewage system's capacity. Consequently, the system is susceptible to being overwhelmed by a heavy downpour of rainfall exceeding 6 mm per hour within a brief duration. During episodes of intense precipitation, the rainwater becomes intermixed with sewage effluent prior to its release into the Thames. In the event that the discharge fails to dissipate promptly, there is a possibility of a sewage system backup, leading to localized flooding that could potentially pose a risk to both public health and the environment. In the late 1980s and early 1990s, the London Docklands Development Corporation made significant investments in the redevelopment of the Isle of Dogs and Royal Docks regions in east London. One of the key areas of investment was the development of new drainage infrastructure, which was intended to effectively manage future sewage and surface water runoff. A novel approach was employed to construct a network of tunnels with a substantial diameter, which were subsequently connected to a newly established pumping station located at the Tidal Basin. The system was designed to facilitate the drainage of surface water in the Royal Docks, spanning a distance of approximately 25km (16 miles). The drainage system of Isle of Dogs is facilitated by a stormwater pumping station located at Stewart Street. Following extensive deliberation, enhancements have been sanctioned for implementation with a projected completion date of 2024. The proposed Thames Tideway project entails the construction of expansive storage and transfer tunnels with a diameter of considerable magnitude spanning 35 kilometers (equivalent to 22 miles) beneath the riverbed of the Thames, connecting Hammersmith to Beckton/Crossness, at an estimated cost of 4.9 billion.
IV. Case study: Omid-e-Sabz.
Omid-e-Sabz is situated on the western slope of the Ghoreq mountain, in close proximity to Kabul. It is anticipated by the town manager that the populace will attain a numerical strength of roughly 22,000 individuals in the year 2019. Every residential building possesses a septic tank that is designed to accumulate all domestic wastewater, excluding precipitation runoff. The effluent originating from the septic tanks is directed towards the communal town infiltration system. The determination of the septic tank size is the responsibility of homeowners of both houses and apartment dwellings. However, it is recommended that a capacity of 60–70 cubic meters is sufficient for a single house accommodating three families for a period of two years.
The waste water undergoes a three-step process at the public treatment plant. Initially, the water is gathered in the reservoir, facilitating the settling of certain particulate matter. In the second phase, the water is discharged into an infiltration tank containing sand of different sizes. Ultimately, the purified water is utilized for the purpose of irrigating the public parks and trees within the municipality.
The Kabul Master Plan is a comprehensive urban development strategy aimed at guiding the growth and development of the city of Kabul, Afghanistan.
The plan sanctioned in 2017 outlines a prospective vision for Kabul, which entails the construction of a water and sewage system. The objective of this initiative is to ensure that 80 % of the potable water supply is derived from recycled wastewater.
The magnitude of executing a resolution for the treatment of wastewater in an urban area with a population of 4 million individuals, which is projected to increase to 7 million, and where sewage infrastructure is largely absent, necessitates a significant undertaking rather than a minor one. An audacious strategy characterized by resolute leadership, wherein benefactors, governmental officials, and the city of Kabul itself can collectively provide reinforcement, is imperative. The Microrayon WWTP receives waste from latrines via tankers for treatment. During periods of inactivity, the plant's wastewater is discharged into the urban drainage system, ultimately finding its way into the Kabul River, particularly in arid months.
According to estimates, approximately 600–700 private waste haulers navigate through the city on a daily basis to evacuate containment tanks, which are believed to have a capacity of approximately 10m3 each. Wastewater loads are discharged by haulers through the storm water drainage network and the Microrayon Treatment Facility in Kabul. For regions characterized by moderate to low population density, a decentralized network featuring restricted transfer distances is the most effective solution.
Two distinct approaches to managing wastewater in Kabul have been proposed. In areas with low population density that are in proximity to agricultural land, the optimal approach for waste management is to utilize latrines and wastewater for agricultural purposes. In regions characterized by a high concentration of inhabitants, lift stations represent the optimal solution. Given the intricate population distribution of Kabul, the implementation of a single waste water collection station is not a viable solution. Therefore, it is imperative to explore the possibility of dividing the city into smaller regions to facilitate the collection and treatment of waste.
The proper management of sewage is of great importance in achieving the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs).
The United Nations' Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) were sanctioned with the aim of formulating a comprehensive plan for worldwide development by the year 2030, encompassing 17 primary objectives and 169 subsidiary objectives. The implementation process commenced in January of 2016 and is intended to serve as a framework for forthcoming decisions spanning a period of 15 years. The investigation pertaining to the waste management system in Kabul holds significance in terms of its impact on both human life and the environment, in alignment with the Sustainable Development Goals.
The achievement of Goal 3, which pertains to Good Health and Well-being, can be facilitated by the implementation of effective waste management practices. Such practices have the potential to promote health and well-being. Inadequate management of a sewer system can result in heightened health hazards for the populace and a decline in the overall standard of living.
The attainment of Goal 6, which pertains to Clean Water and Sanitation, is contingent upon the effective management of waste. This is because improper waste management practices can have a direct impact on both surface and underground water sanitation, as well as the availability of clean water resources. Inadequate management of wastewater can result in the contamination of surface and groundwater, rendering it unsuitable for human consumption, and adversely affecting the ecosystem, the environment, and human well-being.
Goal 9 of the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals pertains to Industry, Innovation, and Infrastructure. Within this context, waste management is considered an integral component of the infrastructure that supports both innovation and industrial development.
Sustainable development Goal 11 emphasizes the importance of establishing resilient and sustainable cities and communities that are equipped with robust infrastructure, access to safe and clean drinking water, and thriving industries. The concept of sustainability enables urban areas to optimize the utilization and repurposing of resources, exemplified by the treatment and reclamation of wastewater for the purpose of irrigating municipal green spaces.
Goal 13, which pertains to Climate Action, highlights the potential for a city's pollution to disrupt the surrounding climate. The management of waste is a crucial aspect in safeguarding the surrounding ecosystem and promoting the well-being of the populace.
Goal 14 of the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals aims to preserve life below water. One of the strategies to achieve this goal is the implementation of waste water treatment and recycling systems. This approach effectively minimizes the discharge of waste into lakes and rivers, which in turn safeguards the natural habitat and water resources. The findings suggest that the implementation of enhanced waste management practices in Kabul would yield favorable outcomes for residents, including improved quality of life through access to clean air, potable water, and a pollution-free river.
Analysis
Based on the analysis of three case studies and a review of relevant literature, it is contended that the implementation of a contemporary sewage system is of utmost importance in Kabul. In the absence of it, urban existence may become arduous as inhabitants face the peril of ailments, thereby jeopardizing their well-being. In order to effectively cater to the needs of its populace, it is imperative for the government to allocate complete funding towards the development and implementation of a contemporary infrastructure. The role of city planning and management is of utmost importance. It is imperative to sustain and augment the operational capabilities of extant initiatives such as Microrayan and the Industrial Water Reuse Pilot.
Recommendation
Urban centers bear the responsibility of effectively managing waste, particularly in the context of future expansion. Approximately 70 % of Kabul's urban landscape is characterized by unplanned developments, posing significant challenges to effective waste water management. Based on our investigation of wastewater management in other urban areas, we have formulated the following suggestions.
Incorporating a modern sewage system into the municipal infrastructure necessitates the inclusion of a short-term plan that designates responsibility for its management and financing to the local government. The proper containment and separation of sewage water from groundwater and the surrounding habitat is of utmost significance. The case of Omid-e-Sabz is examined, wherein wastewater undergoes treatment through septic tanks and a filtration system prior to being repurposed for irrigation of crops and landscaping.
Incorporating a system of lift stations into the infrastructure of Kabul would be a prudent measure for the purpose of effectively managing and treating wastewater over an extended period of time. The filtered water obtained from these stations can subsequently be repurposed for the purposes of crop irrigation and landscaping.
Executing the short-term strategy can be deemed feasible given that the expenses associated with septic tanks can be divided among landowners and stakeholders from the private sector. By way of contrast, the construction of life stations is contingent upon the commitment of municipal authorities to procure land, construct subterranean sewer systems, and establish connections with urban users.
Conclusion:
The Omid-e-Sabz system presents a case study for managing wastewater in Kabul, a city that is confronted with obstacles stemming from uncontrolled expansion. The government of Kabul should demonstrate a sustained dedication to enhancing its sewer management system in collaboration with its populace, with the aim of guaranteeing the provision of safe drinking water and safeguarding public health. This can be achieved through the development and execution of a well-conceived growth plan.
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