The Isfara River is one of the key sources of water in Central Asia, which flows through the territories of Kyrgyzstan Tajikistan, and Uzbekistan. The water resources of this river are important for agriculture, industry, and the livelihoods of many communities in the region. However, conflicts and problems in the management of these resources can lead to serious consequences for the region. Water management during the Soviet era was more administrative within the Rayon administrations, with limited oversight by the respective national agencies. After the collapse of the Soviet Union, the issue of water allocation became political. This has serious implications for the local population, which depends on the transboundary waters of the Isfara River. The lack of an institutional system for the joint management of water resources between riparian states leads to uneven distribution of water resources and disregard for Soviet-era agreements, resulting in frequent conflicts between the people who live in the area and sometimes this leads to conflicts between countries. The Isfara River is a source of drinking water and an important source of water for agriculture. In this regard, water cooperation in the Isfara River is critical to ensure the sustainable development of the region and improve people's lives. The article deals with the problems of the development of water diplomacy between the countries of the Isfara River basin and ways to resolve them.
Keywords: Central Asia, transboundary rivers, water diplomacy, Isfara River Basin
Introduction
The Isfara River basin is located in the northern part of Tajikistan and southwestern Kyrgyzstan. The basin originates on the northern slopes of the Turkestan Range at an altitude of 4500–5000 m and flows north through the Ferghana Valley to the Syrdarya River. The total length of the basin is about 107 km, the catchment area is 3240 km 2 . The primary source of the Basin is snow and glaciers. The high-water season begins in the second half of April, in some years in May, and lasts until October [1].
Despite its relatively small size, the Isfara basin is one of the most complex basins of small rivers in the Ferghana Valley. This complexity is determined, first of all, by the geographical position, it crosses several geographical zones: the high mountain zone, the zone of medium mountains, the zone of adyr (hills) and foothills and the in the floodplain of the Syrdarya river.
The upper reaches of the basin are located in Kyrgyzstan, where the river is called Ak-Su, within the southwestern part of the Batken region. Further, the river flows through the Tajik of Vorukh, returns back to Kyrgyzstan, and from the hydro post Tangi Vorukh (which serves as the main reference point for water allocation between Tajikistan and Kyrgyzstan), water enters the territory of the Isfara region. At the same time, part of the water is diverted to the Tortgul reservoir, which serves as the main source of nutrition for the Kyrgyz land. Further, from the Ravat hydroelectric complex, water enters the territory of Uzbekistan [2].
According to reports issued in 2013 by the United Nations Economic Commission for Europe on Development Cooperation between Kyrgyz Republic and the Republic of Tajikistan on small transboundary river basins total population within the basin is 715,84 people in the Kyrgyz part, and 371,181 in the Tajik part Isfara district and Kanibadam. Since then, the population has increased, but there has been no updated information.
Drinking water and agriculture
The Isfara River plays an important role in drinking water supply and agriculture in the Central Asian region. Drinking water supply and agriculture are two key aspects of the use of the water resources of the Isfara River. At present, the drinking supply and agriculture in the region have become the objects of serious problems related to climate change. Also, with the increase in population and the expansion of agriculture, it became clear that the management of water resources in the region should be more efficient and sustainable.
Despite the fact that the Isfara River Basin has a large supply of water resources, the population's access to safe drinking water is limited. The governments of Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan have launched programs to improve the drinking water supply of the population (for example, «Clean Water» in Kyrgyzstan and «Improvement of drinking water supply for 2007–2020" in Tajikistan), under which water supply systems have been reconstructed and the conditions of key facilities have been improved. However, in general, the problem of providing the population with safe drinking water has not been fully resolved.
According to industry, agriculture plays an important role in local economic development. Agriculture is one of the main sectors of the region's economy and requires a significant amount of water for irrigation. However, too much use of water can lead to the depletion of its resources and the deterioration of soil quality. 74.3 % of the population of the basin lives in rural areas and is employed in agriculture. In most areas, the population is engaged in cotton planting, fodder, or gardening. In addition, the cultivation of crops such as grain, rice, and vegetables is common. The main limitation of agricultural production is the lack of water for irrigation. Irrigation is an important component of agricultural development in the basin. About 43,000 ha of land are irrigated with the help of the Isfara River. Most of the irrigated land in the Tajik part of the basin is 31,000 ha (or 72 %), followed by the Kyrgyz part — 9,013 ha (21 %), and the Uzbek part — 3,000 ha (7 %).
Irrigation and drainage networks were built from 1970–1990. Currently, the network does not meet the requirements of water users. As a result, this has led to the problem of water shortages, waterlogging, increased groundwater levels, and soil salinization. In most areas, the population is engaged in growing fodder or gardening. In addition, the cultivation of crops such as grain, rice, and vegetables are common. The main limitation in agricultural production is the lack of water for irrigation [1].
The problem with water use in this region arises for a number of reasons. First, the population is growing, and this population must be provided with access to safe drinking water, water for household needs, and irrigation of their agricultural land. At the same time, agriculture is also developing, and water is needed to irrigate more and more areas devoted to crops and gardens. In this area, sections of the border between the three states and collision points are demarcated, including not only water but also territories, roads, and rubble.
Challenges
The Isfara River basin, which spans several Central Asian countries, has become the focus of attention due to many challenges related to water resources. This basin plays an important role in supplying water, irrigating the land and maintaining the ecology of the area. However, water scarcity, pollution, lack of cooperation between countries, climate change and lack of infrastructure pose challenges to the sustainable management of this unique resource of the region.
Currently, there are some problems in the fields of cooperation and water allocation in the Isfara river basin. The main reasons for the existing conflicts in the past centuries and ongoing in the present in the Batken rayon in the Batken region of Kyrgyzstan and the Isfara administrative capital of the Sughd region of Tajikistan are:
— Geographic factor
— High demographic growth and population density
— Shortage of cultivated areas and acute shortage of land;
— plots for individual construction;
— Access to pastures and use of forest resources;
— Shortage (deficit) of water;
— Use of water as a pressure tool;
— Non-compliance with previously agreed agreements;
— distribution of water;
— Outdated water infrastructure;
— Existence of disputed territories [3].
One of the main problems is the outdated water infrastructure, as it was built on the Isfara River during the Soviet era. Outdated water infrastructure can have a negative impact on the quality and availability of drinking water as well as the ecological state of water resources. Possible problems associated with outdated water infrastructure may include leaks in the water supply system, Insufficient water treatment, and impacts on ecosystems. Outdated infrastructure may not meet modern environmental standards, which can lead to pollution of aquatic ecosystems. It can also be inefficient and uneconomical, as older equipment is more expensive to maintain and repair and consumes more energy and water.
Representatives of the two peoples lived together for many years, sharing land and water. And although these lands were considered disputed territories and their borders were not completely delimited, there were no special conflicts because clubs, schools, rural hospitals, and shops were common. But friendship and peaceful life began to be violated: the population grew, and land and water for farming and cultivating gardens became sorely lacking. Considering that there is no other source of income except agriculture (no factories, no factories), the situation began to heat up every day. The first serious conflict between Tajiks and Kyrgyz with the use of weapons and the first victims occurred in the late 80s of the 20 centuries. The village of Khojai alo, through which canals and irrigation ditches pass, has turned from a center of friendship into a hotbed of interethnic conflict.
Farmland without irrigation, of course, cannot exist. Lack of water has caused many conflicts between residents of border villages. One of them occurred in August 2015, when residents of the Kyrgyz village of Koktash blocked the channel, the water of which is used by the residents of Chorkuh Jamoat [2].
The root of the problem of the recent 2021 and 2022 conflicts between Tajikistan and Kyrgyzstan is assumed to lie in water resources and infrastructure as well.
Environmental cross-border issues, along with problems in trade, energy, and transport infrastructures, as well as migration and humanitarian issues, are among the factors that determine political stability in the region.
The region faced another, no less important problem — the threat of water shortage due to the rapid melting of glaciers in the mountains. It is this problem, as noted by environmental experts, that can play a key role in the emergence of a water crisis in Central Asia. Moreover, in the medium term, an increase in the inflow of water in the rivers is predicted, but in the long term, a strong reduction in the full flow of rivers is quite possible, which will also entail irreversible changes in the climate of Central Asia (desertification, a crisis in agriculture, degradation of entire regions due to lack of water).
The use of the transboundary Isfara River is a regional problem, and it is necessary for all three countries to solve it. There is a need for a clear understanding of the fact that many of the environmental problems that exist in the region. This can only be solved through mutual cooperation. The main problems related to water use in the Isfara river basin require a joint solution. This need must be recognized at different levels: at the level of the population, local authorities, and state authorities. Subject to constructive dialogue and rational water allocation and use, the waters of the Isfara River will become a consolidating factor in interstate relations between Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, and Uzbekistan.
Interstate Water Cooperation in the Isfara River Basin
Interstate water cooperation is an important tool for the management and protection of water resources between different states. This cooperation involves agreements, laws and regulations aimed at the efficient use, distribution and protection of water resources within the region.
The water resources of the Isfara River have been used for a long time by the Kyrgyz Republic, the Republic of Tajikistan, and the Republic of Uzbekistan, thats why interstate water relations have developed over many decades. With the development of water management complex, with the commissioning of the Toktogul and Kampyrravat reservoirs, large canals, the use of groundwater, and the implementation of other measures, as well as to ensure equal and fair access to water resources, due to the increase in water requirements, the question of revising water sharing arose. By the Protocol of 11.04.1980 on the inter-republican distribution of the runoff of small rivers in the Fergana Valley, approved by the Deputy Minister of Water Resources of the USSR I. I. Borodavchenko, the water distribution of the runoff of the Isfara River was adopted in the following proportions: Kyrgyzstan — 37 %, Tajikistan — 55 %, Uzbekistan — 8 %. Paragraph 6 of the Protocol of 1980 adopted a decision: «Consider it expedient to carry out the main filling of the Tort-Gul reservoir from October 1 to April 1, leaving sanitary releases in the river in the amount of 1.5 m3/ss (below the hydroelectric complex).».... Paragraph 3 of this Protocol decides to distribute the flow of the river according to the data of the Tash-Korgon (Tangi-Vorukh) gauging station. In general, the legal basis for water allocation between the Isfara river basin countries is formed by the Protocols of Water Allocation, signed in different years by the plenipotentiaries of the three republics of the former Soviet Union. The legal framework is clearly insufficient, it requires updating and a clearer division of the rights and obligations of the parties [5].
Tajikistan and Kyrgyzstan in the regional sense are the countries of the upper reaches, here the interests of the republics coincide, but on the other hand, in the Isfara River basin, Tajikistan and Uzbekistan are the countries of the lower reaches, and Kyrgyzstan is the country of the upper reaches. A contractual and legal framework has been created between the Republic of Tajikistan and the Kyrgyz Republic, which includes about 70 intergovernmental and interdepartmental documents, among which the Treaty on the Fundamentals of Interstate Relations of 1996 and the Treaty on Good Neighborly and Partnership Relations of 2004 are considered fundamental. An Interdepartmental Working Group has been established to consider
Since 2009, Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan have jointly developed a draft Agreement between the Government of the Kyrgyz Republic and the Government of the Republic of Tajikistan on cooperation in the use of international rivers with the support of the GIZ program funded by the German Foreign Ministry and since 2012 with funding from the European Union. The Agreement envisaged establishment of joint Water Committee, River Commissions and Secretariats in international river basins crossing the borders of the two countries. But unfortunately, this project was suspended.
Most of the difficulties in water negotiations stem from rigid ideas about how water should be distributed. When countries share border waters, it is assumed that there is a fixed amount of water that can be shared between them, often in the face of ever-increasing demand and uncertain volatility. Such assumptions lead to zero-sum thinking, where there are absolute winners and losers. However, when parties instead understand that water is a flexible resource and use processes and mechanisms to focus on building and building trust, even conflicting countries can reach agreements that satisfy their citizens' water needs and their national interests.
However, recently both sides have taken the initiative in developing cooperation and settling disputes in the water sector. In 2019, Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan signed an Agreement on Cooperation in the Use and Protection of Water Resources of the Isfara River, which is focused on creating a stable and sustainable water management system for the Isfara River. The agreement provides for the establishment of an international commission on water resources of the Isfara River, which will coordinate the use of water, monitor, and assess the environmental impact of water use. In addition, within the framework of water cooperation in the Isfara River, a number of projects for the joint use of water resources and environmental protection have been implemented.
Overall, intergovernmental water cooperation in the Isfara River Basin is crucial for sustainable water management and conflict resolution, aimed at efficiently using and protecting this vital regional resource.
Resolving the challenges
The regulation of the water problem is one of the key tasks of our time. Every year, the world's population is growing, and at the same time, the need for water resources is increasing. Therefore, it is necessary to develop effective measures for the management and use of water in order to ensure its sustainable use in the long term.
There are several ways to regulate the water problem. One of them is the adoption of laws and regulations that regulate the use of water resources. Different countries have different laws that establish the rules and procedures for the use of water. In some countries, laws include a system of licensing for the use of water resources, while in others, there is a system of quotas or distribution of water between different sectors of the economy. Also, an important way to regulate the water problem is the use of modern technologies and innovative methods of water management . For example, the use of systems for automatic control and management of water resources can reduce water losses and ensure more efficient use of its resources.
Water diplomacy is a key tool for conflict resolution and cooperation between states on water. Water is a vital resource that affects the health, well-being and security of people around the world. But as noted with population growth, climate change, and economic development, water resources are becoming increasingly scarce and vulnerable. Water resources can be a source of tension and disputes between states, especially in areas with limited resources. Water diplomacy helps states overcome differences and reach agreement on issues related to water allocation, ecosystem protection, pollution prevention, and adaptation to climate change.
Water diplomacy is an emerging concept to address the political nature of transboundary cooperation and to link water with broader regional cooperation, geopolitics and foreign policy1. The argument is that diplomacy –as an established process for a country to communicate and collaborate with as well as influence foreign governments and peoples across multiple diplomacy tracks can provide additional means to tackle water-related tensions and facilitate collaboration between countries sharing joint water bodies. Water diplomacy is considered in both policy arenas and by the academic Some important conceptual contributions include the Multi- track Water Diplomacy Framework as well as initiatives linking water and peace [4].
In summary water diplomacy contributes to sustainable development and fosters international relations. Collaboration in water resource management supports economic growth, poverty reduction, and improved living conditions. It also enhances trust-building and strengthens international cooperation, fostering a sense of shared responsibility for water-related challenges.
Conclusion
The regulation of the water problem is not only an issue affecting the economy and agriculture but also largely a matter of national security, and its success here can only be achieved through diplomacy and the coordinated work of a number of structures. Issues on joint water use in the Isfara river basin remain unresolved. The low degree of success is explained by following exclusively the national interests of their country.
The allocation of water between the countries in the Isfara River basin is governed by the Protocols of Water Allocation, which were signed at various times by representatives from the three former Soviet Union republics. However, the existing legal framework is inadequate and needs to be revised and clarified to establish a more defined distribution of rights and responsibilities among the parties involved.
The problem of insufficient interaction remains in the region. Reform on the issue of water use is required. It is necessary to involve all the republics of the Isfara river basin in the processes of water diplomacy. A key component of the success of water diplomacy in this region is the consideration of mutual interests. To do this, it is necessary to seat all parties at the negotiating table and establish the process of building a common concept of water management. Remove excessive politicization from water issues and focus on socio-economic components. Increase the exchange of data and information, which will lead to an increase in trust between the republics. Since trust is a fundamental component of water diplomacy, it will be easier to clear up misunderstandings and uncertainties about water management decisions. In addition, it is important to follow the established agreements. Ultimately, water can become an instrument of cooperation in the region.
Also, transboundary institutions can be created to promote cooperation, overcome initial disagreements, and find ways to resolve water issues between countries. A key role in the joint rational use of the water of the Isfara River is played by state bodies that are responsible for infrastructure water facilities. After all, the quantity and quality of water depend on the technical condition of these facilities. However, an equally important factor in the regulation of the water problem is the participation of the public and other stakeholders in the process of managing water resources which is one of the IWRM principles. They can contribute to decision-making related to water use, as well as monitor compliance with established rules and regulations.
References:
- Eurasian River Basin Management Portal http://riverbp.net/pools/profiles/detail.php
- River of life. How water is distributed in the north of Tajikistan and how environmental problems are jointly solved. Manizha Kurbanova, Parviz Tursunov
- Interstate water cooperation of Tajikistan with neighboring countries. Prof. Pulatov Ya.E.
- Water diplomacy paths — An approach to recognise water diplomacy actions in shared waters. Marko Keskinen, Erik Salminen, Juho Haapala
- Decree of the Government of the Kyrgyz Republic No. 271 “On approval of the Regulations on water protection zones and strips water bodies in the Kyrgyz Republic” dated 07.07.1995
