1. Introduction

Kazakhstan is China's main trade partner in Central Asia. It is also the main land bridge for China-Europe rail freight. Differences in technical norms, documents and control procedures raise the time and cost of moving goods between the two countries. Existing studies focus on individual border ports, legal barriers and the performance effects of logistics collaboration [6, p. 14; 18, p. 87; 23, p. 27]. Their recommendations usually call on the two governments to harmonize national standards bilaterally.

This bilateral framing has two limitations. First, Kazakhstan is a member of the EAEU. Safety requirements for railway rolling stock, railway infrastructure and wheeled vehicles are set by Union-wide technical regulations, not by Kazakhstan alone [19]. A bilateral agreement can therefore change only part of the rules that apply to Chinese goods and vehicles. Second, China and Kazakhstan are already parties to several multilateral conventions on rail carriage, road transit and customs procedures. These instruments form a common basis that does not need to be negotiated again.

This paper addresses three questions. Which elements of logistics standardization do the two countries already share through international instruments? Where do gaps remain? How can the shared basis be used to align the two regimes? In answering them, the paper shifts the focus from removing barriers to building on an existing common foundation.

2. Materials and methods

The study applies comparative documentary analysis. The sources fall into three groups: national laws and EAEU technical regulations; treaty texts and status records of international organizations; and bilateral agreements and official announcements. The two regimes are compared in four layers: national standard systems, rail transport, road transport and customs procedures. For each layer, the analysis asks whether both countries apply the same international instrument, whether only one does, or whether the matter is regulated at the national or regional level.

3. Standard systems of China and Kazakhstan

3.1 China: a national system open to international standards

China's standard system is governed by the Standardization Law, revised on 4 November 2017 and in force since 1 January 2018. Article 2 divides standards into national, industry, local, association and enterprise standards. National standards are either mandatory or recommended, while industry and local standards are recommended [21]. Article 8 commits the state to take part in international standardization, to adopt international standards where appropriate, and to promote conversion between Chinese and foreign standards [21]. It thus gives a legal basis for using international standards in China-Kazakhstan logistics rules. For trade, imported products must meet mandatory standards (Article 25), whereas technical requirements for exports are set by contract (Article 26) [21]. Abroad, China promotes standards cooperation through a Belt and Road action plan for 2018–2020 [4]. Overall, China is open to international standards at home but works mainly through bilateral projects abroad.

3.2 Kazakhstan: a two-level system within the EAEU

In Kazakhstan, standardization is governed by the Law “On Standardization” of 2018 [17]. The law provides for national standards and for the use of interstate and international standards. Mandatory safety requirements, however, are increasingly set at the supranational level. By 2019, the Customs Union and the EAEU had adopted 48 technical regulations [19]. They include TR CU 001/2011 on railway rolling stock and TR CU 003/2011 on railway infrastructure, both in force since 2 August 2014. They also include TR CU 018/2011 on wheeled vehicles, in force since 1 January 2015 [19]. These regulations cover the main equipment used in China-Kazakhstan freight.

3.3 Implications of the asymmetry

A comparison of Sections 3.1 and 3.2 reveals a clear asymmetry. China sets its standards and negotiates abroad as a single state. Kazakhstan, by contrast, shares regulatory competence with the EAEU in the areas that matter most for logistics equipment. This asymmetry has two consequences. First, under Article 26 of the Chinese law, contracts for equipment supplied to Kazakhstan must incorporate EAEU technical regulations [21]. Second, a bilateral agreement alone cannot align the requirements for rolling stock and vehicles; this requires recognition of EAEU conformity or arrangements at the China-EAEU level. The 2018 China-EAEU Agreement on Trade and Economic Cooperation offers a framework for such arrangements [1].

4. Shared international basis and remaining gaps

4.1 Rail transport

Both countries belong to the Organisation for Co-operation between Railways and are parties to the Agreement on International Goods Transport by Rail (SMGS) [13, p. 36]. A single legal regime therefore governs carriage on the China-Kazakhstan section. The main technical gap is track gauge: 1435 mm in China and 1520 mm in Kazakhstan, so goods must be transloaded at the border [22, p. 36]. China-Europe trains face a further legal gap where the SMGS meets the COTIF/CIM regime used in the European Union. The common CIM/SMGS consignment note avoids reissuing documents at this point. It saves 8–10 hours per train and about 40 euros per consignment [12].

4.2 Road transport

In road transit, the two countries already share a common international regime: the TIR Convention. Kazakhstan was a party before China, and the Convention entered into force for China on 5 January 2017, making China its 70th contracting party [10]. Under the Convention, goods travel under customs seal with a TIR carnet and are not inspected again at each border. TIR transport has grown quickly since China joined. By 2026, more than 3,700 Chinese vehicles were registered for TIR transport, more than 6,000 operations were expected that year, and over 120 direct routes to Europe ran along three corridors [8].

China has recently widened the scope of TIR through domestic rules. Customs Announcement No. 2 of 2026, in force since 15 January 2026, extended the TIR procedure to bonded goods and cross-border e-commerce goods and required declarations through the International Trade Single Window [3]. Combined with electronic pre-declaration, this allows customs to assess risks before a vehicle reaches the border [8]. The Announcement also exempts tractors carrying containers that meet the 1972 Customs Convention on Containers from a separate vehicle approval certificate [3]. This exemption shows that a shared international standard can directly replace a national approval procedure.

The TIR Convention, however, covers only customs transit. Carriage contracts fall under the Convention on the Contract for the International Carriage of Goods by Road (CMR), on which the two countries share no common rules. Kazakhstan acceded to the CMR on 17 July 1995 and has applied it since 15 October 1995, whereas China is not among its 58 parties [11]. Road carriage contracts between the two countries therefore rest mainly on bilateral agreements. In 2023, the two governments replaced their 1992 road transport agreement with a new one that introduces electronic permits with a digital signature [16]. This is progress in digitalization, but it remains a bilateral arrangement rather than a common international rule.

4.3 Customs procedures

The customs layer shows the broadest common basis. Both countries are parties to the Revised Kyoto Convention on the simplification and harmonization of customs procedures. Kazakhstan deposited its instrument of accession on 26 June 2009 [20]. Both are also parties to the WTO Trade Facilitation Agreement. China accepted it on 4 September 2015 as the 16th WTO member to do so, but reserved a transition period for a few measures such as the single window [7]. Kazakhstan accepted the Agreement on 26 May 2016 [15].

The remaining gap concerns the implementation of mutual recognition of authorized economic operators (AEO). China and Kazakhstan signed an AEO arrangement on 26 April 2019, but it has not yet been implemented [5]. In 2022, China, Kazakhstan and the other Central Asian states pledged to “steadily implement” AEO mutual recognition, customs-railway data sharing and information exchange [14]. They also agreed to explore cooperation on single windows and the networking of electronic certificates [14]. By contrast, China's arrangement with Uzbekistan took effect on 1 August 2026. It gives certified traders lower import inspection rates, priority physical checks, a designated customs liaison officer and priority clearance after trade disruptions [2]. Implementing the China-Kazakhstan arrangement would bring similar benefits on both sides of the border. Table 1 summarizes the comparison.

Table 1

Alignment matrix of China-Kazakhstan logistics standard regimes

Source: compiled by the author based on [3; 5; 7; 8; 10–16; 19; 20; 22].

The matrix shows that the common basis is strongest in procedural and legal instruments: the SMGS, the TIR Convention, the Revised Kyoto Convention and the Trade Facilitation Agreement. The gaps lie mainly in the technical regulation of equipment, which falls under EAEU competence, and in the law of road carriage contracts. These findings call for a differentiated strategy, set out in Section 5.

5. An “international-standards-first” pathway

5.1 Using shared conventions as the default reference

Where both countries apply the same instrument, bilateral rules should refer to it rather than create parallel requirements. Arrangements at rail border stations should build on SMGS rules and documents. Road transit arrangements should rely on the TIR procedure. Its rapid uptake by Chinese carriers [8] shows that a shared convention can scale quickly. Customs cooperation should follow the standards of the Revised Kyoto Convention and the commitments under the Trade Facilitation Agreement. This reduces the number of rules to negotiate and keeps bilateral arrangements compatible with those of third countries on China-Europe corridors. Where only one country applies a convention, as with the CMR, Chinese accession could be considered in the longer term.

5.2 Addressing technical regulation at the China-EAEU level

The safety of rolling stock and vehicles is regulated by EAEU technical regulations. Alignment in this area should therefore be pursued under the China-EAEU agreement [1]. A priority is the mutual recognition of test results and conformity certificates for railway equipment and vehicles used in cross-border transport. Such recognition would apply in all Union member states, not only in Kazakhstan.

5.3 Building digital documents on international standards

Several digital documents are now emerging: electronic permits under the 2023 road agreement [16], TIR declarations filed through China's Single Window [3] and electronic rail consignment notes. They should follow internationally recognized formats rather than separate bilateral specifications. Two steps would help. In rail transport, the CIM/SMGS consignment note should be used more widely on China-Europe routes [12]. In customs, the signed AEO arrangement should be implemented. The networking of electronic certificates envisaged in the China-Central Asia initiative should also be advanced [5; 14]. Data submitted once could then be reused by the railways and customs authorities of several countries.

5.4 Institutionalizing regional dialogue on standards

Aligning technical regulation also requires a regular regional dialogue. In May 2026, standardization bodies, research institutes and firms from China, Russia, Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan agreed to set up a regular mechanism for comparing standards and technical requirements. They also agreed to develop joint standards and laboratories and to advance the mutual recognition of standards within the Shanghai Cooperation Organization [9]. Three of the four participants are EAEU members. The mechanism therefore reaches the level at which Kazakhstan's technical rules are made. Logistics equipment and transport documents should be among its priorities.

6. Conclusion

The two countries are less divided than a purely bilateral view suggests. They share the SMGS in rail transport, the TIR Convention in road transit, and the Revised Kyoto Convention and the WTO Trade Facilitation Agreement in customs procedures. The remaining gaps lie in EAEU-level technical regulation, the law of road carriage contracts and the implementation of AEO mutual recognition. Alignment should therefore follow an “international-standards-first” logic. Shared conventions should be the default reference. Technical regulation should be handled at the China-EAEU level. Digital documents should use international formats, and regional dialogue on standards should become regular.

The study has limitations. It relies on a documentary comparison and does not measure effects. Future research could estimate how shared instruments, such as TIR transit or the CIM/SMGS consignment note, change border-crossing time and cost on China-Kazakhstan routes.

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