Introduction
The Decree on Peace, adopted by the Second All-Russian Congress of Soviets in October, 1917, brought massive changes not only to the country's domestic political system but also to its approach to international relations. Issued during the First World War and amid a political, economic, and social crisis in Russia, the Decree both represented a new vision of peaceful coexistence with capitalist countries and a practical strategy for providing the Soviet government with the time to consolidate its power.
1. Origins and Main Provisions of the Decree on Peace
Following the October Revolution in 1917, Lenin issued two main decrees — the Decree on Land and Decree on Peace on October 26 (November 8). The Decree on Peace called for a democratic peace by which the Workers' and Peasants' government meant «an immediate peace without annexations (i.e. without the seizure of foreign lands, without the forcible incorporation of foreign nations) and without indemnities», encompassing not only the nations of Europe but also those overseas [1].
From the domestic environment point of view, the principal factors driving the newly established Soviet government to seek an immediate end to the First World War were the enormous human and material losses suffered by Russia, together with the severe economic and social crisis intensified by the prolonged conflict. The war was the reason of the collapse of industrial production, agriculture, and transportation, while creating acute shortages of food, raw materials, and fuel. According to available statistics, compared to 1916, gross industrial output fell by 36.4 % in 1917, while more than 800 enterprises closed between March and November of that year [2]. These conditions placed considerable pressure on the new government to withdraw from the war and redirect its limited resources toward stabilizing the country. From the external perspective, the continued war exposed Soviet Russia to the danger of further military confrontation and armed intervention by Germany and the Entente powers. Overall, the pursuit of an immediate peace became both an economic necessity and a political strategy for the Bolshevik government, providing the essential context for Lenin's initiative to issue the Decree.
The Decree on Peace set forth the following main points:
- The Government of Russia stated that the Decree would abolish secret diplomacy, immediately publish and annul all secret treaties concluded between February and October 25, 1917, and ensure that all peaceful negotiations be conducted openly.
- The Decree opposed the annexation of other countries' lands without the consent of nations concerned, emphasizing the principle of equality between small and large countries. All the governments should renounce the seizure of foreign territories (annexations) and the imposition of payments on defeated states by victorious powers (indemnities).
- Although the Provisional Workers' and Peasants' Government of Russia announced its readiness to conclude an armistice on the stated conditions, it did not regard the Decree as the only possible means for peace-making and remained open to considering other peace proposals.
- An immediate armistice was to be concluded for at least three months to allow for full peace negotiations among all peoples. In the Decree, Lenin also hoped of receiving the support of the class-conscious workers of Great Britain, France, and Germany to «help us to conclude peace successfully, and at the same time emancipate the labouring and exploited masses of our population from all forms of slavery and all forms of exploitation» [1].
Taken together, the Decree on Peace not only reflected Bolshevik government's urgent response to Russia's domestic crisis and external threats, but also set principles for the states with different social systems, including equality of all countries and peoples, right of nations to self-determination, open diplomacy and rejection of imperialist expansion.
2. Significance and Impact of the Decree on Peace
The significance of the Decree on Peace extended beyond its immediate objective of withdrawing Soviet Russia from the First World War. Its principles concerning national self-determination, equality among all peoples, and opposition to imperialism were reflected in subsequent Soviet policies. For example, the «Declaration of the Rights of the People's of Russia», signed on November 15, 1917 by Lenin and Stalin, proclaimed the equality and sovereignty of the peoples of Russia, the right to free self-determination, the abolition of all national and religious privileges and disabilities, and the freedom and development of national minorities and ethnographic groups [3]. Later, these principles were codified in the first Soviet constitution, adopted in 1918 by the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic. In this sense, the Decree on Peace formed part of the broader ideological foundation of early Soviet foreign policy, which emphasized national self-determination, equality between countries and nations regardless of their size, and opposition to imperialism and aggressive war.
Another important consequence of the Decree on Peace was the Soviet government's campaign against secret diplomacy. In the weeks following its adoption, the Bolshevik government published collections of previously secret diplomatic documents in Pravda and Izvestia . These included the Franco-Russian Military Convention of 1892 , theAnglo-Russian Convention of 1907 , and the secret Russo-Japanese treaty of July 3, 1916, among other diplomatic agreements. The publication of these documents was significant because it transformed the Decree's opposition to secret diplomacy from theory into practice in the field of foreign policy. By exposing the secret agreements of the former government and the Entente powers, the Soviet government sought the First World War as a major conflict mainly based on imperial and territorial interests, which was not related to interests and needs of ordinary people.
The principle of national self-determination was also reflected in the Soviet government's approach to the nationalities of the former Russian Empire. During this period, the Soviet government advocated for the rights of the oppressed peoples and supported the principle of national self-determination. Finland was formally recognized as an independent state by the Council of People's Commissars on December 18 (31), 1917, following Lenin's support for Finnish independence. In December 1918, the Soviet government recognized the independence of the Estonian Soviet Republic, the Soviet Republic of Latvia, and the Lithuanian Soviet Republic. These recognitions applied specifically to the Soviet governments established in those territories and reflected the Bolsheviks' policy of supporting national self-determination of all the peoples inhabiting Russia [4].
The Soviet government also attempted to spread its call for peace worldwide. After receiving no positive response from Britain, France, and the United States regarding its proposals to join peace negotiations, it addressed a series of appeals to the peoples and soldiers of the belligerent countries. These included the «Appeal of the Soviet Government to the Governments and Peoples of the Belligerent Countries Proposing to Join Negotiations for an Armistice» of November 28, 1917; the «Appeal to the Working Masses of All Countries» of December 22, 1917; and the «Appeal of the People's Commissariat for Foreign Affairs to the Peoples and Governments of the Allied Countries» of December 30, 1917. These appeals attempted to distinguish Soviet government's foreign policy main goals from those of the Entente powers and Germany. They were also intended to communicate the Soviet government's position directly to workers and soldiers overseas, and to encourage international support for its revolutionary concept of peace [4].
Due to Entente countries refusing to engage in peace negotiations, the Soviet government had to sought a separate peace agreement with Germany, one of which was the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, signed on 3 March, 1918. The Treaty imposed severe territorial losses on Soviet Russia, including the loss of control over Ukraine, Belarus, the Baltic territories, Finland, and Poland. On the one hand, the Decree presented peace as a matter of equality, self-determination, and opposition to imperialist annexations and indemnities. On the other hand, the Soviet government had to accept substantial territorial concessions to withdraw from the war. In modern Russian history, the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk «was the peace that revolutionary Russia, gritting its teeth, was forced to accept» in order to survive and bring an end to the imperialist war [5].
In essence, the Decree on Peace shaped the early Soviet government's foreign policy, which was guided by the principles of equality and freedom for all peoples, regardless of their country, open and honest diplomacy, and opposition to imperialism. The Treaty of Brest-Litovsk was the practical implementation of these principles. Although the terms of the peace agreement were severe, but it nevertheless provided the long-awaited peace and much-needed break from the war.
3. Historiographical Review on the Decree on Peace
Although Soviet and Russian scholars may differ in their interpretations of the main purpose pursued by the Decree, they generally agree its publication was necessitated by the circumstances of the time and was essential to the cause of peace.
A. A. Akhtamzyan, N. I. Kaptchenko, et al. (1969) argue that the Decree on Peace «embodied the experience of the international revolutionary movement» and promoted international solidarity among the working class [6].
M. I. Trush and S. Dzhusupbekov (1971) think that, through the Decree on Peace, the Soviet government condemned «the bourgeois and landowning policy of inciting oppressed nations against each other» [4]. They maintain that Lenin used the Decree to demonstrate Soviet Russia's willingness to negotiate peaceful coexistence with countries with different social system. Later, the idea of peaceful coexistence would benefit not only the development of socialism in Russia but also the broader international revolutionary movement.
According to A. O. Chubaryan (1972), the Decree on Peace consolidated and implemented the Bolsheviks' earlier declarations and established the foundations for one of the key principles of Soviet foreign policy — social internationalism. One of the main goals of The Decree was not only to initiate peaceful negotiations with capitalist countries, but also to encourage revolutionary movements internationally [7]. Furthermore, Lenin's Decree addressed the nature of relations with capitalist countries and proposed solutions to both political and economic questions. These included the conclusion of an armistice and peace, as well as the maintenance of existing economic agreements with other countries. Nevertheless, Chubaryan notes that the Decree on Peace was primarily oriented toward solving the immediate challenges of that period, leaving certain issues insufficiently elaborated.
V. I. Kuznetsov, R. A. Tuzmukhamedov, et al. (1972) maintain that the Decree on Peace opposed both aggressive warfare and colonialism, while laying the foundation for new democratic principles and peaceful cooperation among states [8].
G. V. Tunkin emphasizes the great significance of the Decree on Peace for international relations. The annulment of the secret treaties signed by Tsarist Russia, and the establishment of relations with countries, large and small, on the basis of the principles of equality, sovereignty provided an inspiring example for dependent countries [9].
The reviewed interpretations of Soviet and Russian scholars show that the Decree on Peace was regarded as more than a temporary response to the First World War. Although the historians emphasize different aspects of the Decree, including revolutionary internationalism, peaceful coexistence, national equality and the right for self-determination, and opposition to imperialism, they nevertheless reach a consensus on its important role in the development of early Soviet foreign policy.
Conclusion
The Decree on Peace was one of the first major documents of the Soviet government and marked an important step in the development of its foreign policy. Its emphasis on equality among states, sovereignty, peoples' right to self-determination, and open diplomacy presented a new vision of international relations and provided important principles for Soviet Russia's policy of coexistence with capitalist countries in the future. However, the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk revealed the limitations of these principles in practice. While the Treaty brought an end to Soviet Russia's involvement in the war, it also imposed severe territorial losses. In this sense, the Decree on Peace was significant not only for the principles it proclaimed, but also for the way its practical implementation affected the early development of Soviet relations with other countries.
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