Статья посвящена исследованию переносного потенциала эпитетов в романе Теодор Драйзер « Американская трагедия ». Проводится лингвостилистический анализ оценочных и описательных эпитетов, раскрываются их семантическая структура и функционально-прагматический потенциал. Рассматриваются механизмы метафоризации и коннотативного наращения значения, благодаря которым эпитеты выражают эмоционально-экспрессивную оценку, способствуют психологической характеристике персонажей и формированию их аксиологического образа. Показано, что эпитеты репрезентируют авторскую модальность, усиливают реалистическую достоверность повествования и обеспечивают воздействие на читателя. Результаты подтверждают важную роль эпитетов в создании образной системы произведения и реализации взаимодействия прямого и переносного значений слова.

Ключевые слова: эпитеты, переносный потенциал, литературная стилистика, Теодор Драйзер, Американская трагедия, характеристика персонажей, описательные и оценочные эпитеты.

According to an American linguist Victoria Fromkin, «words and language are not intrinsically good or bad but reflect individual or societal values» [3, p. 11] that means the importance of words are more than simple labels for actions or ideas, predominantly they are powerful tools that shape thoughts, convey meanings in a different way (such as literal and figurative meanings) and express complex realities between variety of literary works and their features.

In literature, the figurative potential of words allows authors to go beyond simple description in their narrative works. Generally, figurative meanings play a crucial role in literary language, transforming words into powerful tools of artistic expressions. Through figurative usage, language and its style acquires emotional, evaluative and high descriptive quality that create an aesthetic impact for each literary work. Figurative meaning is realized in literary discourse through a wide range of stylistic devices, such as metaphor, epithet, simile, metonymy, hyperbole and others that can help to enhance writers’ imagination and explanation about certain situations or descriptions of main characters and their actions. Moreover, these functions of language allow to influence the reader’s perception and interpretation of the text.

One of the most important stylistic devices is the epithet, as it enables the writer to express artistic intention through literary imagery and the figurative meaning of words. An epithet is a stylistic or literary device which is originated from the Greek word « epítheton» , meaning «additional» and it is usually an adjective or descriptive phrase that highlights a particular quality, characteristics or attribute of a person, object, or concept [6].

Mainly, this type of stylistic device adds expressive, evaluative and figurative meaning, which helps to writer convey emotion, imagery or reinforce the author’s attitude to his characters or environment. An epithet can appear in various contexts, even in simple words or short expression. For instance, «bright sun» highlights the sun’s light or «happy child» demonstrates the child’s positive emotion. These examples illustrate that epithet provide both expressive depth and descriptive precision in literary texts. Many scholars have emphasized the role of epithets in literary language. One of the most significant a Russian linguist I. R. Galperin defines the epithet as follows: it is an expressive device based on highlighting a quality or characteristic of the described phenomenon, which is realized in the form of attributive words or phrases that characterize the phenomenon from the perspective of individual perception [5, p. 138].

According to Galperin, the epithet performs two main functions in a literary work. First, the function of revealing a personal, evaluative attitude toward the described facts and second, the evaluative function and the function of creating imagery, and third, the figurative or expressive function. Another an American linguist, in his article «The Transferred Epithet in P. G. Wodehouse» analyzes a particular category of epithet known as transferred epithet that is a figure of speech, where adjectives would logically modify on element of a sentence is grammatically attached to another, creating stylistic effect [3, p. 181].

In addition, Kazakh linguists have approached the study of epithets from different perspectives. They are: some explain it purely from a stylistic standpoint, others from a grammatical perspective, and still others consider it as an object of literary art. The first theoretical formulation was offered by the Kazakh scholar A. Baitursynov in his work «Guide to Literature (Әдебиет танытқыш)’’ : «If we want to single out something and make it more noticeable to the eye, we add a word to the name of that object that explicitly highlights it. For example, we say Kara Mūqan (Black Mūqan), Sary Mūqan (Yellow Mūqan), Bolýs Mūqan (Bolýs Mūqan). This type of specification serves purely to identify, while there is another type of specification intended for aesthetic enhancement. Essentially, specification is used either to beautify or to nickname the object» [1; p. 354]. The perspectives of these scholars collectively demonstrate that epithets are multifaced literary devices that combine expressive, evaluative and stylistic functions. Building on these theoretical insights, epithets can be classified into several types, reflecting their linguistics, structural and semantic characteristics. They are:

1. Principle of fixation: Epithets are divided into language epithets, which are fixed in language system and speech epithets, which are created in a specific text or context.
2. Structural principle: Modern epithets can be classified according to their morphological and syntactic structure, including simple adjectives, compound adjectives or adjectival phrases.
3. Semantic principle: Epithets are distinguished as associated and unassociated. Associated epithets reflect inherent qualities of an object or phenomenon. As an example, the phrase «dark forest» underlines a characteristic feature of the forest and expresses the writer’s subjective perception. Unassociated epithets add qualities that are not intrinsic to the object but create a novel or unexpected impression, stimulating the reader’s imagination, for example: «voiceless sands» describes characters or places’ deep feelings and emotions.

Additionally, the semantic analysis of unassociated epithets makes it possible to divide into 2 main categories: figurative and non-figurative epithets. Each type of the epithet can help to emphasize the main description of people or circumstances. However, figurative epithets can be classified and identified in the following types: Metaphorical epithet refers to describe something by giving it qualities it does not literally have. As an example, the phrase from the novel «An American Tragedy» «that old tenderness» [2, p. 537]. Tenderness cannot be «old» in physical sense. The adjective makes the feeling seem worn, long-lasting and familiar. Author uses this phrase to highlight Clyde’s lingering emotions. Other types of figurative epithets are comparative, synesthetic and sound-based epithets.

All three categories of epithets were mentioned by T. Dreiser in his well-known literary work «An American Tragedy». For instance: «a bizarre and groundless gratitude» [2, p. 537] using comparative epithet describes character’s unusual emotional reaction by implying comparison and evaluation. Furthermore, the expression «pleading and soothing tone» [2, p. 537] emphasizes synesthetic epithet that related to sound and different sense, and emotional effect of Clyde’s voice. «The repeated cry of that bird — harsh, nerve-shaking» [6, p. 578] sound-based epithet, which underlines emotional tension inside of main character, especially his inner fear and anxiety.

The second type of unassociated epithets is non-figurative epithets that has 4 main categories, such as, transferred, oxymoronic, hyperbolic and antonomastic epithets. As an example, we can highlight expressions from «An American Tragedy». For instance, «tortured consciousness» [2, p. 914] highlights character’s mental suffering using logically description by transferred epithet. «Dark suspicion» [2, p. 876] emphasizes contradiction between feelings and emotions. Oxymoronic epithet can help to underline feelings, like fear, uncertainty, hidden danger and other variety of emotions and their contrast. Additional examples illustrate hyperbolic epithet using the phrase «unbelievably despairing» [2, p. 529] that exaggerates emotional state of main character.

Another example emphasizing antonomastic epithet «the death house» [2, p. 882] which demonstrates fate and inevitable punishment through the symbol. All these examples emphasize the primary description and interpretation of the characters’ feelings and circumstances through the various categories of epithets.

However, T. Dreiser is a great writer who can use epithets in different situations, not only in certain contexts. He is a masterful psychologist, skillfully portraying both the wealthy and the poor, as well as the influence of society on the main character. In most of his works, including «An American Tragedy», inner monologues occupy a significant place. T. Dreiser effectively reveals the character’s inner states, emotions, and thoughts. Additionally, he is also a realistic writer, constructing his works based on extensive experience and careful observation. He often incorporates real-life documents into his narratives, such as newspaper clippings, to enhance authenticity. As an example, epithets in his literary work can be highlighted.

Moreover, the author uses epithets in different ways, as they can be divided into several specific groups and add variety, emphasizing circumstances and describing inner emotions and situations surrounding the characters. An analysis of the text conveys epithets functioning as evaluative descriptors. The material demonstrates two structural types: two-component combinations (adjective + noun) and multicomponent construction. Two-component epithets encompass expressions like «commercial heart», «sweet languor», «contending less (of traffic)», «wide-eyed assurance», «undeveloped figure», «homeward-bound individuals» and «dubious baritone». These compact structures provide concise evaluative characterization and create an immediate impression of social atmosphere, physical appearance and emotional state.

Multi-component epithets are more structurally complex and include examples such as «a most important looking person», «woman, solid of frame and vigorous, very plain in face and dress, yet not homely», «odd and mentally disturbed souls», «shrewd, hard business man», «tame and inadequate figure of the girl», «seemingly amiable stranger», «untoward blows of life», «seemingly amiable stranger», «hard yet stricken and disturbing line». These extended constructions combine physical, psychological, and social evaluation, allowing the author to produce more nuanced and layered descriptions. By using various constructions of epithets, the author highlights the importance of psychological insight and reinforces the realistic depiction of reality.

In conclusion, epithets perform an evaluative function that are characterized by a higher degree of imagery, associative richness, and emotional colouring. By utilizing different epithets, author conveys subjective attitudes, intensifies emotional perception, and guides the reader’s response to characters and events. Overall, epithets play a crucial role in shaping the artistic texture of «An American Tragedy» by T. Dreiser. Their interaction enhances psychological depth, reinforces the realistic portrayal of reality and strengthens the expressive power of the text.

References:

1. Baitursynov, A. Adabiet tanytqysh [Literature guide]. Almaty, 2003. 208 p.
2. Dreiser, T. An American Tragedy [Electronic resource]. New York, 1925. Available at: aliceandbooks.com (accessed: 14.02.2026)
3. Fromkin, V., Rodman, R., & Hyams, N. An introduction to language (11th ed.). Cengage Learning. 2018. 604 p.
4. Hall, Robert A., Jr. The transferred epithet in P. G. Wodehouse. Linguistic Inquiry. Vol. 4, № 1.1973. pp. 92–94.
5. Halperin, I. R. Essays on the stylistics of the English language. Moscow: Foreign Languages Publishing House. 1958. 462 p.
6. Merriam-Webster. (n.d.). Epithet . In Merriam-Webster.com dictionary. URL: https://www.merriam-webster.com/word-of-the-day/epithet-2018–06–12