The article examines the activities of the Warsaw Treaty Organization in the Hungarian and Caribbean crises.
Keywords: the Warsaw Treaty Organization, crisis, the Сold war, the North Atlantic bloc, the socialist bloc.
The Warsaw Treaty Organization played a big role during the Cold War, because its doctrinal attitudes and activities were of great importance in maintaining parity with the countries of the capitalist bloc, and, in particular, with the North Atlantic Alliance. The problem of European security was in the focus of attention of political leaders throughout the XX century, therefore, the activities of the WTO in critical and border periods attract the close attention of researchers and scientists.
The WTO is a military-political bloc of the socialist countries of Europe, which was formed in 1955 and the basis of which was an agreement on friendship, mutual cooperation and assistance concluded in the city of Warsaw. Eight Eastern European countries joined this agreement during the year: the USSR, the GDR, Czechoslovakia, Bulgaria, Hungary, Poland, Romania and Albania.
The WTO has been involved in many international crises. The most striking examples of the activities of the Warsaw Treaty Organization are discussed below.
The Hungarian Crisis of 1956
We can safely say that Western countries did not abandon the idea of liberating the countries of Eastern Europe, subject to the «imposition» of the socialist system, from the influence of the USSR. We find confirmation of this in the words of the author of the plan of penetration into the countries of the socialist bloc, David Sarnov, who stated the need to build some networks of educational institutions in the countries of the capitalist bloc that would be entirely specialized in training personnel for the successful conduct of the Cold War, which has already gained momentum, against the USSR and its allies: «Could a kind of academy of political warfare should be created» [4, p. 111].
Moreover, President Eisenhower stated that the liberation of the countries of Eastern Europe has always been and will always be the main geopolitical and strategic goal of the United States of America in the Cold War, and the greatest success in foreign policy, apparently, will be the accession of the countries of Eastern Europe to the bloc of capitalist countries. In this regard, the Kremlin was aware of increasing pressure from Western countries and in fact feared the existence of a threat to the integrity of the Warsaw Treaty Organization, so tensions in the international arena increased, and the preservation of the socialist system in the Eastern Bloc countries became Moscow's priority strategic and foreign policy task.
There were several points of view about the change of the political system in the countries of Eastern Europe. For example, D. Dulles believed that, in principle, the presence of communists in power in these countries does not pose any threat, but it is simply necessary to cut off these countries from the influence of the Kremlin. But still, the goal of the Western powers was to break up the unity of the socialist bloc countries, and then change the political system in them.
So, in 1956, major events took place in Poland, known as the «Poznan June», during which popular demonstrations against the socialist government became one of the largest in Eastern Europe. However, the provocation in Poland was not crowned with success, and the socialist system and the influence of the USSR on the country was preserved. Nevertheless, attempts were not abandoned.
The Suez crisis created excellent conditions for diverting the attention of the Soviet Union. Taking advantage of the opportunity, the Western countries forced an insurrection in Hungary, aiming to eliminate the achievements of the proletariat, which were achieved as a result of the existence of the people's democratic system.
Dulles claimed that the coup in Hungary in the West was already known long before these events [4, p. 133]. Organizations such as the Union of American Hungarians, the Hungarian National Committee, and the Commonwealth of Hungarian Fighters were established, which actively fought against socialist Hungary. According to V. V. Kuznetsov (representative of the USSR to the UN General Assembly), the number of Hungarian emigrants who were part of radical detachments opposing the regime in the country was 11 thousand people. [4, p. 135] It was also reported that in the summer of 1956 The United States has allocated $25 million to «fund actions similar to those that led to unrest in Cognition» [1, p. 575]. Support for the coup in Hungary was also provided by the FRG, which provided assistance to the rebels in the form of financing, weapons and equipment.
Various inflammatory appeals from representatives of Western countries (for example, German MP Prince Hubert von Lowenstein), espionage, the creation of an International «Aid» Committee with General Donovan and the Vienna–Budapest air line to assist the rebels were involved in the provocation of the coup.
The involvement of the local population caused chaos in the country, a regime of fascist terror emerged, everything was going to overthrow the current political regime and establish a fascist dictatorship. Imre Nagy, chairman of the Hungarian Union of Ministers, illegally declared neutrality, supported by the Great Powers [4, p. 153]. The intervention of Western countries and in the internal affairs of Hungary and their financing of the rebels brought with them public unrest.
On November 4, 1956, a request was sent from the new Hungarian government for assistance to the Kremlin in counter-revolutionary actions. Of course, the troops of the Soviet Union were brought into the territory (despite the statements of the United States about the prevention of such actions), thereby reflecting the threat of the overthrow of the socialist system, the offensive on other countries of Eastern Europe, as well as the intervention of the troops of the North Atlantic bloc. The overall leadership of the Combined Forces was carried out by Marshal I. S. Konev. The Warsaw Pact member countries, namely Romania and Bulgaria, offered to use their forces to suppress the rebellion. The operation was called «Whirlwind».
NATO realized at that moment that it was better to leave this conflict a zone of influence of the socialist bloc. Thus, German Defense Minister F. J. Strauss wrote that initially the United States, by its actions and statements, inspired Hungarians with some hope for changes in the country and support from the Americans and the capitalist bloc as a whole, however, when the situation escalates, they «abandon the Hungarian people to their fate. The Defense Minister said that there could be no talk of NATO intervention in the conflict, and the actions of the socialist bloc countries and the suppression of the popular uprising by the Red Army were not considered as an event requiring the intervention of the forces of the North Atlantic Alliance and did not oppress the interests of the United States and allies. Strauss expressed the opinion that if the Soviet Union had been firmly convinced of the US position regarding the Hungarian crisis, the USSR government would not have decided to send troops to Hungary.
As a result, the countries participating in the Warsaw Pact realized the importance of strengthening cooperation and cohesion between the participants of the socialist bloc. Janos Kadar (the leader of the counter-revolutionary movement) wrote that the Hungarian People's Republic managed to overcome the danger, in his opinion, which constituted a threat to the existence of the state, thanks to the support of the socialist camp, which unequivocally supported the counter-revolutionary attack [2, p. 168]. The unity of the Warsaw Pact countries was proof of their loyalty to the principles of socialist internationalism. All the countries of the bloc unanimously approved the actions to suppress the revolutionary movement in Hungary. It was believed that the USSR made a huge contribution to maintaining peace.
Hungary received a lot of financial assistance, and free of charge, from fraternal countries to overcome the economic consequences caused by the actions of the rebels. Significant contributions were made by such states as Poland, Czechoslovakia, the GDR, Bulgaria, Romania, which are the Warsaw Pact member countries.
But still, the «Hungarian question», at the request of the Western Bloc countries, was considered by the UN General Assembly, but the Hungarian government considered it illegal interference in the internal affairs of the country. A telegram was sent stating that any UN resolution was a threat to Hungary's national sovereignty and would be considered an intervention in the country's internal affairs. This does not concern the Government of the Soviet Union, which has the right to negotiate on the withdrawal of Soviet troops [4, p. 173]. The USSR supported the protest.
But the petition was not heard, and the «Hungarian question» continued to be raised at UN meetings. Then the USSR proposed to consider the problem of the interference of the United States of America in the internal affairs of the countries of people's democracy and their subversive activities against these states.
The Cold War moved to the meetings of the UN General Assembly, where the USSR and the USA continued to submit draft resolutions directed against each other. The Warsaw Pact member countries, cooperating, actively fought for the removal of the «Hungarian question» from the agenda of UN meetings, because international contradictions are taking root more and more because of it.
But the diplomacy of the Western Powers continued to pursue a policy that increases international tensions. On March 28, 1957, the Soviet-Hungarian government declaration was issued, in which the actions of the UN were condemned, because they were considered as interference in the internal affairs of states (in particular, Hungary). Also, the introduction of Soviet troops into the territory of the GDR was argued by the fact that this is the direct competence of Hungary, the USSR and other Warsaw Pact member countries [6, p. 229].
On January 1–4, 1957, a meeting of representatives of the USSR, Hungary, Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia and Romania took place in Budapest, where the participants concluded that the threat of the destruction of the people's democracy regime had indeed been eliminated. The opposition to the imperialist camp was supported. In addition, at the meeting, the states stated that they were fully prepared to prevent attempts to aggravate the international situation by «aggressive circles», «determined to thwart the attempts of aggressive circles aimed at further aggravating the international situation, at intensifying the arms race, at inciting military psychosis; the socialist states will rally even more, will defend their unbreakable unity, to resist all attempts aimed at loosening and weakening the socialist camp» [4, p. 195].
Later, in March 1957, Soviet-Hungarian negotiations were organized. At the end of the negotiations, the USSR concluded that food, raw materials and equipment would be delivered to Hungary, and loans were also provided. The adopted Declaration informed that negotiations on the stay of Soviet military units on the territory of Hungary were planned in the near future [6, p. 224].
The Caribbean crisis 1962
In the second half of the twentieth century, the first socialist State, the Republic of Cuba, was created in Latin America as a result of the revolution. Of course, the imperialist countries (first of all, the United States), dissatisfied with what happened, made many attempts that were supposed to lead to the isolation of this state. For example, economic (in 1963, full control was established over US financial transactions with Cuba and all Cuban assets of the Republic of Cuba in the States were blocked) and diplomatic (in 1961 The United States broke off relations with Cuba) the blockade of Cuba, as well as the liquidation of the Republic from the Organization of American States with the rupture of relations [1, p. 590].
In May 1960, diplomatic relations were established between Cuba and the USSR.
Of course, it was not necessary to wait for a reaction from the United States, the States immediately perceived this move as a national threat. D. Eisenhower began to pursue a sanctions policy, preventive measures affecting the Cuban economy were introduced immediately after, in 1960, and in 1962 they were radically tightened. Also, the United States set itself the goal of organizing revolutionary activities with the help of its forces against the Castro government.
But the first attempt to conduct such a special operation in 1961 was unsuccessful, the Americans were defeated by Castro's troops. But the US plans were not forgotten but continued to improve. Undoubtedly, all these actions had a huge impact on the international situation, which was significantly complicated, because the confrontation between the two ideologies increased tension in Soviet-American relations.
The Kremlin immediately reacts to the actions of the United States in Cuba and continues the policy of building up the armed forces, resuming nuclear tests, departing from Khrushchev's plan to reduce them.
NATO is getting closer to the borders of the Soviet Union, deploying its missiles outside the UK, Turkey and Italy. The situation is heating up due to the change in the ratio of nuclear forces between the two alliances.
Moscow understood that the current situation should be resolved by a retaliatory threat, realizing that Cuba is an ideal springboard. After all, with the location of missiles on this territory, it is possible to restrain the nuclear ambitions of the States. A special initiator of the development and implementation was N. S. Khrushchev. The Presidium of the Central Committee also supported the General Secretary. This move was supposed to help restore the balance between the two powers. The missiles were supposed to be placed secretly, hiding the Anadyr plan (this is the name this operation received) from Washington.
Castro readily met the USSR halfway, giving full consent to the deployment of nuclear weapons on the territory of Cuba.
By October 22, 1962, huge forces of missile and ground forces were deployed to Cuba. Of course, the transfer of armed forces of this scale failed. But Khrushchev, in his conversation with the Minister of the Interior of the States, explained that they were training Cubans to use modern defense equipment in order to protect their territory [7, p.230]. TASS stated that the Minister of Defense of the USSR was ordered to bring the Armed Forces deployed to Cuba to the highest combat readiness.
If we talk about the contribution of the Warsaw Pact member countries, the Governments have taken various actions to bring their forces to the highest degree of readiness. Military exercises began to take place. Which were located in the WTO countries, for example, in Poland, the German Democratic Republic, Czechoslovakia.
The United States reacted to the presence of Soviet forces in Cuba by introducing a «quarantine» in the Caribbean Sea, where all ships en route to Cuba were inspected by the Americans, which, of course, directly contradicts international law, but Washington did not care [5, p. 97–98].
Negotiations between the heads of government of the two superpowers, Khrushchev and Kennedy, did not give the necessary results, but only aggravated the crisis. The world was on the verge of nuclear war.
But Soviet ships. reaching the boundaries of the so-called quarantine. They turned around and headed back to the East. Washington demanded to eliminate the offensive weapons of the Soviet Union from the territory bordering their country.
Under pressure from Castro, the Kremlin decided to take the path of finding a compromise with Washington. Thus, the USSR announced that Soviet ships going to Cuba would not supply any military weapons, whether offensive or defensive. But they demanded guarantees from the States about the cancellation of plans for intervention on the territory of Cuba [5, p. 101]. But the situation continued to escalate. It must be said that N. S. Khrushchev was afraid of the possibility of starting a war with America, so on October 27 he issued a statement where he decided to «back down» and yield to the States, namely, to withdraw the weapons that America recognized as offensive, but in response demanded to withdraw American missiles from Turkey and grant guarantees of non-aggression to Cuba. The US response was to agree to the withdrawal of Soviet weapons from Cuba and the completion of the American «quarantine» in the Caribbean Sea [5, p.102].
On October 28, a compromise on the proposed terms between the United States and the USSR was reached.
The Caribbean crisis played a big role in building relations between the socialist and Western blocs. The WTO and NATO realized that it was necessary to look for a new approach to their relationship in order to avoid military clashes.
One of the main goals of the Warsaw Treaty Organization was to reduce armament and stop the mutual race. But the crisis of 1962 not only did not contribute to this, but also aggravated the situation. Two alliances led by the USA and the USSR tried to demonstrate their capabilities to each other in order to use them as a deterrent to the opposing side.
The WTO continued to move towards detente on the world stage.
Following this strategy, in February 1963, a Non-Aggression Pact was concluded between the Warsaw Pact member States and the North Atlantic Treaty States.
The purpose of the Pact was to eliminate international tension, establish trusting relations between States and mutual disarmament.
Agreements were concluded on the following points:
- Both alliances agree to refrain from attacking each other.
- All conflicts and issues arising at the borders of the intersection of the interests of the two blocs should be resolved by peaceful means in the presence of interested parties.
- The duration of the existence of the Pact concluded between the alliances was determined. It will be valid until the WTO and NATO break up.
- The instruments of ratification shall be deposited by both parties with the UN Secretary-General. The last instrument of ratification deposited will mark the entry into force of the Pact.
- The Pact, written in three languages, namely, Russian, English and French, was transmitted to the UN Secretariat and will be sent to the Governments of the States later [3, p. 72–73].
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